KKK Essay Example For Students

KKK Essay Word Count: 1675In world history, the individuals who have assisted with building a similar culture are not really of one race, and those of a similar race have not all taken an interest in one culture. In logical language, culture isn't a component of race (Benedict). The pitiful truth is that numerous races are oppressed. Separation is characterized as the demonstration of seeing and making clear the differentiations between two unique gatherings of individuals. There have been numerous gatherings that have been extremely segregating, yet the one that sticks out like a precious stone in coal is the Ku Klux Klan. The first Ku Klux Klan was framed, in April 1866, as a social association for ex-confederates in Pulaski, Tennessee. This was during the time after the common war, known as the Reconstruction time frame (Benets). The name Ku Klux Klan originated from the Greek word kuklos, which means band or circle (Benets). The Ku Klux Klan spread quickly through the south and before long got the epithet of the Invisible Empire (Ingalls). The Ku Klux Klan has been alluded to by a wide range of terms, for example, The Klan or KKK. In 1867, Nathaniel Bedford Forrest, an ex-confederate rangers pioneer, and numerous other ex-confederates held a gathering and changed over the social gathering to a gathering that restricted the Republican State government (Trelease). Nathaniel Bedford and numerous normal gathering individuals, Klansmen, framed this gathering for three reasons. They needed to keep racial oppression obvious, ensure the dark network didnt revolt, and ensure the dark network remained in thei r place (Trelease). The Klansmen were from each monetary social class, yet the pioneers would ordinarily be from the tip top Lepech 2professional class (Trelease). The Klan was and still is available in both America and Canada (Ingalls). The chain of importance of the KKK was set in the April 1867 gathering (Columbia). At this gathering, Nathaniel Bedford Forrest was made the Grand Wizard, which implied he was the pioneer of the entirety of the tribes (Columbia). A stage lower than the Grand Wizard was the Grand Dragon (Columbia). A Grand Dragon and his Realm controlled each state (Columbia). The Realms were comprised of eight Hydras, who went about as a staff to the Grand Dragon (Columbia). Underneath the Grand Dragon were the Grand Titans with their six Furies that controlled every area (Columbia). These rankings ordered the obligations of every single one of the individuals. The Ku Klux Klan utilized dread as a significant defender in their strategies to persecute the dark network. Klansmen would camouflage themselves in robes, hold quiet processions, make 12 PM rides on ponies, and communicate in with strange language and orders (Columbia). The KKK Dressed in streaming sheets, their appearances secured with white covers, and with skulls at their seat horns, acted like spirits of the confederate dead came back from the war zones (Columbia). To quicken the dread according to the average folks The Klan would hold lynchings and whippings (Columbia). The far reaching dread permitted the KKK to increase political force despite the fact that they were veering endlessly from their fundamental thought of limiting the south from reproduction. By doing a large number of these exercises the KKK adequately figured out how to get blacks far from the democratic stalls. Numerous Klansmen were chosen into office on the grounds that the dark network couldn't cast a ballot. Despite the fact that the racial oppressors were in office,Lepech 3they didn't do as much as they would have trusted. Authorities didn't achieve limiting dark force and expanding racial oppression. The Ku Klux Klan power diminished in 1870 and 1871, when congress passed the Force Bill (Columbia). This bill expressed that one couldn't limit anothers option to cast a ballot, which the KKK was doing. Another endeavor to attempt to stop the KKK was the KKK demonstrations of 1870 and 1871. After the KKK was demonstrated to be brutal, these laws that were officially passed disbanding the KKK in 1871 (Benets). Despite the fact that these bills and acts were passed, the KKK despite everything endure. The Clansman, composed by Thomas Dixon in 1905, and the movie Birth of a Nation, by D.W. Grifith in 1915, animated the introduction of the second Ku Klux Klan (Trelease). The subsequent KKK was established by an ex-serve, William J. Simmons, who was a magnificent advertiser of gathering action (Columbia). There were numerous similitudes of this new development to the first. The new KKK development included enemy of nativism, hostile to Catholicism, and against Semitic perspectives to the d ark disdain of the primary gathering and furthermore assaulted the issues of anti-conception medication, Darwinism, pacifism, and the cancelation of restriction (Benets; Columbia). It additionally drew individuals from every single social class yet mostly the lower working class (Trelease). Another regular tribute between the first and second KKK was that the two of them spread quickly (Columbia). .ub903eb274f62536674efd6d21374ef53 , .ub903eb274f62536674efd6d21374ef53 .postImageUrl , .ub903eb274f62536674efd6d21374ef53 .focused content territory { min-stature: 80px; position: relative; } .ub903eb274f62536674efd6d21374ef53 , .ub903eb274f62536674efd6d21374ef53:hover , .ub903eb274f62536674efd6d21374ef53:visited , .ub903eb274f62536674efd6d21374ef53:active { border:0!important; } .ub903eb274f62536674efd6d21374ef53 .clearfix:after { content: ; show: table; clear: both; } .ub903eb274f62536674efd6d21374ef53 { show: square; progress: foundation shading 250ms; webkit-change: foundation shading 250ms; width: 100%; darkness: 1; change: mistiness 250ms; webkit-change: murkiness 250ms; foundation shading: #95A5A6; } .ub903eb274f62536674efd6d21374ef53:active , .ub903eb274f62536674efd6d21374ef53:hover { obscurity: 1; change: haziness 250ms; webkit-change: darkness 250ms; foundation shading: #2C3E50; } .ub903eb274f62536674efd6d21374ef53 .focused content region { width: 100%; position: relative; } .ub903eb274f62536674efd6d21374ef53 .ctaText { outskirt base: 0 strong #fff; shading: #2980B9; text dimension: 16px; textual style weight: intense; edge: 0; cushioning: 0; text-enrichment: underline; } .ub903eb274f62536674efd6d21374ef53 .postTitle { shading: #FFFFFF; text dimension: 16px; text style weight: 600; edge: 0; cushioning: 0; width: 100%; } .ub903eb274f62536674efd6d21374ef53 .ctaButton { foundation shading: #7F8C8D!important; shading: #2980B9; fringe: none; fringe range: 3px; box-shadow: none; text dimension: 14px; text style weight: striking; line-tallness: 26px; moz-fringe sweep: 3px; text-adjust: focus; text-improvement: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-tallness: 80px; foundation: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/modules/intelly-related-posts/resources/pictures/straightforward arrow.png)no-rehash; position: supreme; right: 0; top: 0; } .ub903eb274f62536674efd6d21374ef53:hover .ctaButton { foundation shading: #34495E!important; } .ub903eb274f62536674efd 6d21374ef53 .focused content { show: table; stature: 80px; cushioning left: 18px; top: 0; } .ub903eb274f62536674efd6d21374ef53-content { show: table-cell; edge: 0; cushioning: 0; cushioning right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-adjust: center; width: 100%; } .ub903eb274f62536674efd6d21374ef53:after { content: ; show: square; clear: both; } READ: Sound In Poetry EssayEven however the first Klan had likenesses with the second, they additionally had a few contrasts. The second KKK dreaded blacks as well as dreaded the numerous foreigners entering the U.S. (Trelease). The Catholics and Jews that were ascending in their financial social request caused the KKK to feel undermined and made them be very Lepech 4weary of the newcomers social position (Trelease). The second KKK consumed crosses, which was not normal for the first (Trelease). The consumed crosses were utilized to scare whatever number individuals as could be expected under the circumstances despite the fact that the Ku Klu x Klan accepted they were strict. This new Klan was generally not brutal, not at all like The Klan previously (Trelease). To positively influence society, the KKK would march in quiet walks and wear KKK stuff (Trelease). These occasions that were held all the more calmly harmed the resistance than some other strategy the KKK utilized. The KKKs fundamental target was not for political control, yet this thought went along in light of the fact that it was a tranquil and lawful approach to pick up control. Texas, Oklahoma, Indiana, Oregon, and Maine all chosen KKK individuals as state authorities or congressmen (Columbia). The chosen authorities places were won commonly in light of the fact that blacks were not permitted to cast a ballot (Columbia). These serene methods for issue with the minorities functioned admirably in light of the fact that this permitted them to endeavor to accomplish their objectives lawfully. After some time, the KKK declined because of a few reasons. Davis C. Stephen was indicted for the homicide of a dark man that made a declination of the KKK during the 1920s (Columbia). This occasion made a decrease in enrollment from 5 million 30,000 by 1930 (Columbia). In 1923, there were not exactly half the same number of lynchings as in 1922. The examination was from 61 lynchings in 1922 to 26 out of 1923. Of the 26 casualties in 1923, one was a shaded ladies and two white men the other 23 casualties were dark guys (KKK). Different reasons that the KKK declined in this timespan was that the media looked downward on their occasions, and the enthusiasm of the Klan individuals themselves reduced (Benets). State laws additionally restrict the association from being a mystery society Lepech 5(Columbia). These state laws made it unlawful to assemble furtively and to perform a significant number of their activities. Despite the fact that this decay brought down the numbers, the pioneers despite everything made a major benefit from the offer of KKK gear (Columbia). There was an another last endeavor to redesign the KKK by Dr. Samuel Green, yet it fizzled (Columbia). The significant improvement of this new KKK development was because of the numerous social liberties exercises during the 1960s (Ingalls). The majority of the individuals in the third KKK were white individuals from a low social monetary class (Benets). Despite the fact that this endeavor fizzled, the KKK despite everything proceeds. This cutting edge Klan is little and doesn't have numerous individuals (Trelease). Different gatherings that are like the KKK in todays life are the National States Ri

Lamb The Gospel According to Biff, Christ’s Childhood Pal Chapter 20 Free Essays

Part IV Soul He who finds in me all things, and everything in me, is never a long way from me, and I am never a long way from him. THE BHAGAVAD GITA Part 20 The street was sufficiently wide for both of us to walk one next to the other. The grass on either side was as high as an elephant’s eye. We will compose a custom exposition test on Sheep: The Gospel According to Biff, Christ’s Childhood Pal Chapter 20 or on the other hand any comparative point just for you Request Now We could see blue sky above us, and precisely as far along the way as the following bend, which could have been any separation away, in light of the fact that there’s no point of view in a solid green channel. We’d been going on this street a large portion of the day, and passed just a single elderly person and two or three bovines, however now we could hear what seemed like an enormous gathering moving toward us, not far-removed, maybe 200 yards away. There were men’s voices, a great deal of them, strides, some noisy metal drums, and generally upsetting, the constant shouts of a lady either in torment, or scared, or both. â€Å"Young masters!† came a voice from some place close to us. I bounced noticeable all around and descended in a protective position, my dark glass blade drawn and prepared. Josh searched for the wellspring of the voice. The shouting was drawing nearer. There was a stirring in the grass a couple of feet from the street, of course the voice, â€Å"Young aces, you should hide.† An unthinkably slight male face with eyes that appeared to be a size and a half unreasonably enormous for his skull jumped out of the mass of grass close to us. â€Å"You must come. Kali comes to pick her casualties! Come now or die.† The face vanished, supplanted by a rough earthy colored hand that motioned for us to follow into the grass. The woman’s shout hit crescendo and fizzled, as though the voice had broken like an overtightened lute string. â€Å"Go,† said Joshua, driving me into the grass. When I was off of the street somebody got my wrist and began hauling me through the ocean of grass. Joshua locked onto the tail of my shirt and permitted himself to be hauled along. As we ran the grass whipped and sliced at us. I could feel blood gushing all over and arms, even as the earthy colored apparition pulled me more profound into the ocean of green. Over the grating of my breath I heard men yelling from behind us, at that point a whipping of the grass being stomped on. â€Å"They follow,† said the earthy colored apparition behind him. â€Å"Run except if you need your heads to embellish Kali’s raised area. Run.† Behind me to Josh, I stated, â€Å"He says run or it will be bad.† Behind Josh, plot against the sky, I saw long, swordlike lance tips, the kind of thing one may use for decapitating somebody. â€Å"Okey-dokey,† said Josh. It had taken us longer than a month to get to India, the vast majority of the excursion through many miles of the most noteworthy, most tough nation we had ever observed. Incredibly enough, there were towns dispersed all through the mountains, and when the locals saw our orange robes entryways were flung wide and larders opened. We were constantly taken care of, given a warm spot to rest, and invited to remain as long as we wished. We offered coldhearted anecdotes and aggravating serenades consequently, similar to the custom. It wasn’t until we came out of the mountains onto a fiercely hot and sticky prairie that we discovered our method of dress was drawing more scorn than welcome. One man, of evident riches (he rode a pony and wore silk robes) reviled us as we passed and spit at us. Others by walking started to consider us also, and we rushed off into some high grass and changed out of our robes. I tucked the glass blade that Joy had given me into my scarf. â€Å"What was he going on about?† I asked Joshua. â€Å"He said something regarding tellers of bogus predictions. Fakers. Adversaries of the Brahman, whatever that is. I’m not certain what else.† â€Å"Well, it would seem that we’re more greeting here as Jews than as Buddhists.† â€Å"For now,† said Joshua. â€Å"All the individuals have those imprints on their brows like Gaspar had. I think without one of those we’re must be careful.† As we went into the swamps the air felt as thick as warm cream, and we could feel the heaviness of it in our lungs after such huge numbers of years in the mountains. We went into the valley of a wide, sloppy waterway, and the street got gagged with individuals going all through a city of wooden shacks and stone special raised areas. There were bumped back steers all over the place, in any event, brushing in the nurseries, however nobody appeared to hold up under them any brain. â€Å"The last meat I ate was what was left of our camels,† I said. â€Å"Let’s discover a corner and get some beef.† There were dealers along the street selling different products, dirt pots, powders, herbs, flavors, copper and bronze cutting edges (iron appeared to be hard to come by), and minuscule carvings of what appeared to be a thousand distinct divine beings, the vast majority of them having a bigger number of appendages than appeared to be essential and none of them looking especially benevolent. We discovered grain, breads, natural products, vegetables, and bean glues available to be purchased, however no place did we see any meat. We chose some bread and zesty bean glue, paid the lady with Roman copper coin, at that point found a spot under an enormous banyan tree where we could sit and take a gander at the waterway while we ate. I’d overlooked the smell of a city, the rank mlange of individuals, and waste, and smoke and creatures, and I started to yearn for the spotless quality of the mountains. â€Å"I don’t need to rest here, Joshua. Let’s check whether we can discover a spot in the country.† â€Å"We should follow this waterway to the ocean to arrive at Tamil. Where the stream goes, so go the people.† The stream †more extensive than any in Israel, however shallow, yellow with dirt, and still against the substantial air †appeared to be more similar to an enormous stale puddle than a living, moving thing. In this season, in any case. Spotting the surface, about six thin, stripped men with wild white hair and not three teeth each yelled furious verse as loud as possible and hurled water into sparkling peaks over their heads. â€Å"I wonder how my cousin John is doing,† said Josh. Up and down the sloppy riverbank ladies washed garments and infants just strides from where dairy cattle swam and pooed, men angled or pushed long shallow pontoons alongside shafts, and youngsters swam or played in the mud. To a great extent the body of a pooch bounced flyblown in the delicate current. â€Å"Maybe there’s a street inland somewhat, away from the stench.† Joshua gestured and moved to his feet. â€Å"There,† he stated, highlighting a tight way that started on the contrary bank of the waterway and vanished into some tall grass. â€Å"We’ll need to cross,† I said. â€Å"Be pleasant on the off chance that we could discover a pontoon to take us,† said Josh. â€Å"You don’t figure we ought to ask where the way leads?† â€Å"No,† said Joshua, taking a gander at a horde of individuals who were assembling close by and gazing at us. â€Å"These individuals all look hostile.† â€Å"What was that you enlightened Gaspar regarding love was a state you stay in or something?† â€Å"Yeah, however not with these individuals. These individuals are frightening. Let’s go.† The unpleasant minimal earthy colored person who was hauling me through the elephant grass was named Rumi, and a lot shockingly, in the midst of the bedlam and tumble of a quick scramble through a leviathan marshland, sought after by a muderous band of clanking, yelling, stick waving beheading devotees, Rumi had figured out how to discover a tiger †no little assignment when you have a kung fu ace and the friend in need of the world close behind. â€Å"Eek, a tiger,† Rumi stated, as we discovered a little clearing, an insignificant misery truly, where a feline the size of Jerusalem was happily biting endlessly on the skull of a deer. Rumi had communicated my opinions precisely, however I would be accursed on the off chance that I was going to leave my final words alone â€Å"Eek, a tiger,† so I listened discreetly as pee filled my shoes. â€Å"You’d figure all the clamor would have startled him,† Josh stated, similarly as the tiger turned upward from his deer. I saw that our followers appeared to be shutting on us constantly. â€Å"That is how it is generally done,† said Rumi. â€Å"The clamor drives the tiger to the hunter.† â€Å"Maybe he knows that,† I stated, â€Å"so he’s not going anyplace. You know, they’re greater than I envisioned. Tigers, I mean.† â€Å"Sit down,† said Joshua. â€Å"Pardon me?† I said. â€Å"Trust me,† Joshua said. â€Å"Remember the cobra when we were kids?† I gestured to Rumi and urged him down as the tiger hunkered and strained his rear legs as though planning to jump, which is actually what he was doing. As the first of our followers broke into the clearing from behind us the tiger jumped, cruising over our heads significantly again the tallness of a man. The tiger arrived on the initial two men coming out of the grass, squashing them under his colossal forepaws, at that point raking their backs as he jumped once more. After that everything I could see was stick focuses dispersing against the sky as the trackers turned out to be, well, you know. Men shouted, the lady shouted, the tiger shouted, and the two men who had fallen under the tiger slithered to their feet and limped back toward the street, shouting. Rumi looked from the dead deer, to Joshua, to me, to the dead deer, to Joshua, and his eyes appeared to become significantly bigger than previously. â€Å"I am profoundly moved and unceasingly thankful for your fondness with the tiger, however that is his deer, and apparently he has not gotten done with it, perhaps†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Joshua held up. â€Å"Lead on.† â€Å"I don’t know which way.† â€Å"Not that way,† I stated, pointing toward the shouting miscreants. Rumi drove us through the grass to another street,

Blog Archive MBA News Financial Times Releases 2014 European Business School Rankings

Blog Archive MBA News Financial Times Releases 2014 European Business School Rankings Moving up two spots, the London School of Business now tops the Financial Times’ 2014 list of the best MBA programs in Europeâ€"released November 30â€"unseating both HEC Paris and Spain’s IE Business School (which tied at number one in 2013). Esade Business School in Spain and France’s INSEAD placed fourth and fifth, respectively. The Financial Times 2014 European Business School Rankings compile results from the publication’s previous lists released throughout the yearâ€"including MBA, executive MBA (EMBA), masters in management, and executive education rankings. If you are interested in studying abroad, or simply want to learn more about MBA programs in Europe, view the full list on the Financial Times Web site. The publication’s top ten are as follows: London Business School HEC Paris IE Business School Esade Business School INSEAD University of St. Gallen IESE Business School SDA Bocconi IMD University of Oxford: Saïd Share ThisTweet News

Essay on The Logic of Care by Annemarie Mol - 1310 Words

Introduction The Logic of Care is a philosophic book. The book is written from a patient perspective. Therefore it is easy to understand and easy to read. This review is written for people working in the health care and for the patient’s movement. It is important that people in the health care start thinking about the choices the patients have to make. Content of the book The author of the book â€Å"The Logic of Care† is Annemarie Mol. Mol is a Dutch ethnographer and philosopher. Mol describes how the ideal of choosing clashes with the reality of living with a sick body. Her book was published in 2006. The Logic of Care is a philosophical book, with applications and examples from the healthcare. The book investigates what good care is.†¦show more content†¦Rather than engaging in a transaction, they interact so as to best accommodate the exigencies of the disease with the habits, requirements and possibilities of daily life. Thus care is not a limited product, but an ongoing process. The ideal of patient choice presupposes professionals who bound themselves to presenting facts and using instruments. In a consult, a professional is supposed to give information, after which the patient can evaluate his or her values and come to a choice. However, facts do not precede choices and activities, but depend on what is hoped for and on what can be done. Choosing is rarely enough to actually realize it. The logic of choice adopt that we are separate individuals who form a public when we are added together. In contrast, in the logic of care, we do not start out as individuals, but always belong to publics already. The totals of which we are a part may be named and described in various ways. One of the requirements of good care is that such categories are created wisely. But how and for whom are the requirements of good care created? These questions emerge in care practices again and again. Categories are not given once and for all, but need to be made and adapted. They need to be outlined in such a way that they contribute to good care. Care for a population is not just a sum total of the care for a lot of individuals. Individuals require different kinds of care (Mol, 2008). The writer

A Research Study On Gestational Diabetes Mellitus ( Gdm )...

â€Å"Follow-Up of Gestational Mellitus in an Urban Safety Net Hospital† Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is a form of high blood sugar that affects pregnant women. It is called GDM in women who have never had high blood glucose readings until pregnancy. This type of diabetes usually develops around the 24th or 25th week of gestation. GDM occurs when the body is not able to make enough insulin or use the insulin that is made for its increased needs during pregnancy. GDM not only causes complications during pregnancy, but can also lead to problems in the future. In this article the author focused on missed opportunities of follow-up care of women of different race and ethnic groups that had GDM in an urban safety net hospital. Research Purpose/Aim The purpose of this study was to assess the follow-up of GDM in the postpartum period among a racially and ethnically diverse group of women receiving care in a major urban medical center. This study examined the use and predictors of postpartum glucose testing among a primarily black population in a setting that consisted of obstetrician-gynecologists and family practice providers (Bernstein, Iverson, McCloskey, Parritz, Winter, 2014). This research is significant to nursing in that it informs nurses of the need to be more vigilant in making sure women realize the importance of follow-up care and the important role nurses themselves play in coordinating follow-up appointments for these ladies. The aim of this research study isShow MoreRelatedThe Effects Of Gestational Diabetes1016 Words   |  5 PagesOne of the most common metabolic disorders during pregnancy is gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) and its occurrence continues to increase (8). The 2004 analysis by the Center fo r Disease Control and Prevention states that cases of GDM are at 9.2%. 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Human Body And The Immune System - 952 Words

The Fundamentals: When a person is sick, their first course of action is usually to take medication. While medication can aid in sickness, the human body is actually built to naturally defend itself using the immune system. The immune system is comprised of biological structures and processes that protect the body from pathogens which cause disease or sickness. As much as the immune system does to protect us, it is the chief hurdle of transplantation of living cells from one organism to another. The immune system recognizes anything foreign put into the body as a threat that must be removed. Consequently, transplanted tissue or organs meant to save a life are often attacked and rejected by the recipient’s body. The immune system is a hodgepodge of different structures and pathways that work together as a unit. It recognizes foreign objects that enter the body through antigens. Apart from identical twins, no two people contain the exact same antigens [Adams 2011]. 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Types of Fallacies free essay sample

If you suppose that terrorizing your opponent is giving him a reason for believing that you are correct, then you are using a scare tactic and reasoning fallaciously. Example: David: My father owns the department store that gives your newspaper fifteen percent of all its advertising revenue, so I’m sure you won’t want to publish any story of my arrest for spray painting the college. Newspaper editor: Yes, David, I see your point. The story really isn’t newsworthy. David has given the editor a financial reason not to publish, but he has not given a relevant reason why the story is not newsworthy. David’s tactics are scaring the editor, but it’s the editor who commits the scare tactic fallacy, not David. David has merely used a scare tactic. This fallacy’s name emphasizes the cause of the fallacy rather than the error itself. 2. Appeal to Pity You commit the fallacy of appeal to emotions when someone’s appeal to you to accept their claim is accepted merely because the appeal arouses your feelings of anger, fear, grief, love, outrage, pity, pride, sexuality, sympathy, relief, and so forth. Example of appeal to relief from grief: [The speaker knows he is talking to an aggrieved person whose house is worth much more than $100,000. ] You had a great job and didn’t deserve to lose it. I wish I could help somehow. I do have one idea. Now your family needs financial security even more. You need cash. I can help you. Here is a check for $100,000. Just sign this standard sales agreement, and we can skip the realtors and all the headaches they would create at this critical time in your life. There is nothing wrong with using emotions when you argue, but it’s a mistake to use emotions as the key premises or as tools to downplay relevant information. Regarding the fallacy of  appeal to pity, it is proper to pity people who have had misfortunes, but if as the person’s history instructor you accept Max’s claim that he earned an A on the history quiz because he broke his wrist while playing in your college’s last basketball game, then you’ve committed the fallacy of  appeal to pity. *Appeal to Snobbery 3. Ad Hominem You commit this fallacy if you make an irrelevant attack on the arguer and suggest that this attack undermines the argument itself. It is a form of the  Genetic Fallacy. Example: What she says about Johannes Kepler’s astronomy of the 1600? s must be just so much garbage. Do you realize she’s only fourteen years old? This attack may undermine the arguer’s credibility as a scientific authority, but it does not undermine her reasoning. That reasoning should stand or fall on the scientific evidence, not on the arguer’s age or anything else about her personally. If the fallacious reasoner points out irrelevant circumstances that the reasoner is in, the fallacy is a circumstantial ad hominem. Tu Quoque  and  Two Wrongs Make a Right  are other types of the ad hominem fallacy. The major difficulty with labeling a piece of reasoning as an ad hominem fallacy is deciding whether the personal attack is relevant. For example, attacks on a person for their actually immoral sexual conduct are irrelevant to the quality of their mathematical reasoning, but they are relevant to arguments promoting the person for a leadership position in the church. Unfortunately, many attacks are not so easy to classify, such as an attack pointing out that the candidate for church leadership, while in the tenth grade, intentionally tripped a fellow student and broke his collar bone. *Ad Hominem Circumstantial Guilt by association is a version of the  ad hominem  fallacy in which a person is said to be guilty of error because of the group he or she associates with. The fallacy occurs when we unfairly try to change the issue to be about the speaker’s circumstances rather than about the speaker’s actual argument. Also called â€Å"Ad Hominem, Circumstantial. Example: Secretary of State Dean Acheson is too soft on communism, as you can see by his inviting so many fuzzy-headed liberals to his White House cocktail parties. Has any evidence been presented here that Acheson’s actions are inappropriate in regards to communism? This sort of reasoning is an example of McCarthyism, the technique of smearing liberal Democrats that was so effectively used by the late Senator Joe McCarthy in the early 1950s. In fact, Acheson was strongly anti-communist and the architect of President Truman’s firm policy of containing Soviet power. 4. Appeal to the People If you suggest too strongly that someone’s claim or argument is correct simply because it’s what most everyone believes, then you’ve committed the fallacy of appeal to the people. Similarly, if you suggest too strongly that someone’s claim or argument is mistaken simply because it’s not what most everyone believes, then you’ve also committed the fallacy. Agreement with popular opinion is not necessarily a reliable sign of truth, and deviation from popular opinion is not necessarily a reliable sign of error, but if you assume it is and do so with enthusiasm, then you’re guilty of committing this fallacy. It is essentially the same as the fallacies of ad numerum, appeal to the gallery, appeal to the masses, argument from popularity, argumentum ad populum, common practice, mob appeal, past practice, peer pressure, traditional wisdom. The â€Å"too strongly† mentioned above is important in the description of the fallacy because what most everyone believes is, for that reason, somewhat likely to be true, all things considered. However, the fallacy occurs when this degree of support is overestimated. Example: You should turn to channel 6. It’s the most watched channel this year. This is fallacious because of its implicitly accepting the questionable premise that the most watched channel this year is, for that reason alone, the best channel for you. If you stress the idea of appealing to a  new  idea of the gallery, masses, mob, peers, people, and so forth, then it is a bandwagon fallacy. *Bandwagon If you suggest that someone’s claim is correct simply because it’s what most everyone is coming to believe, then you’re committing the bandwagon fallacy. Get up here with us on the wagon where the band is playing, and go where we go, and don’t think too much about the reasons. The Latin term for this fallacy of appeal to novelty is Argumentum ad Novitatem. Example: [Advertisement] More and more people are buying sports utility vehicles. Isn’t it time you bought one, too? [You commit the fallacy if you buy the vehicle solely because of this advertisement. ] Like its close cousin, the fallacy of appeal to the people, the bandwagon fallacy needs to be carefully distinguished from properly defending a claim by pointing out that many people have studied the claim and have come to a reasoned conclusion that it is correct. What most everyone believes is likely to be true, all things considered, and if one defends a claim on those grounds, this is not a fallacious inference. What is fallacious is to be swept up by the excitement of a new idea or new fad and to unquestionably give it too high a degree of your belief solely on the grounds of its new popularity, perhaps thinking simply that ‘new is better. ’ The key ingredient that is missing from a bandwagon fallacy is knowledge that an item is popular because of its high quality. Appeal to Past People (â€Å"You too†) 5. Accident We often arrive at a generalization but don’t or can’t list all the exceptions. When we reason with the generalization as if it has no exceptions, we commit the fallacy of accident. This fallacy is sometimes called the â€Å"fallacy of sweeping generalization. † Example: People should keep their promises, right? I loaned Dwayne my knife, and he said he’d return it. Now he is refusi ng to give it back, but I need it right now to slash up my neighbors who disrespected me. People should keep their promises, but there are exceptions to this generaliztion as in this case of the psychopath who wants Dwayne to keep his promise to return the knife. 6. Straw Man You commit the straw man fallacy whenever you attribute an easily refuted position to your opponent, one that the opponent wouldn’t endorse, and then proceed to attack the easily refuted position (the straw man) believing you have undermined the opponent’s actual position. If the misrepresentation is on purpose, then the straw man fallacy is caused by lying. Example (a debate before the city council): Opponent: Because of the killing and suffering of Indians that followed Columbus’s discovery of America, the City of Berkeley should declare that Columbus Day will no longer be observed in our city. Speaker: This is ridiculous, fellow members of the city council. It’s not true that everybody who ever came to America from another country somehow oppressed the Indians. I say we should continue to observe Columbus Day, and vote down this resolution that will make the City of Berkeley the laughing stock of the nation. The speaker has twisted what his opponent said; the opponent never said, nor even indirectly suggested, that everybody who ever came to America from another country somehow oppressed the Indians. The critical thinker will respond to the fallacy by saying, â€Å"Let’s get back to the original issue of whether we have a good reason to discontinue observing Columbus Day. † 7. Missing the Point The conclusion that is drawn is irrelevant to the premises; it misses the point. Example: In court, Thompson testifies that the defendant is a honorable person, who wouldn’t harm a flea. The defense attorney commits the fallacy by rising to say that Thompson’s testimony shows once again that his client was not near the murder scene. The testimony of Thompson may be relevant to a request for leniency, but it is irrelevant to any claim about the defendant not being near the murder scene. 8. Red Herring A red herring is a smelly fish that would distract even a bloodhound. It is also a digression that leads the reasoner off the track of considering only relevant information. Example: Will the new tax in Senate Bill 47 unfairly hurt business? One of the provisions of the bill is that the tax is higher for large employers (fifty or more employees) as opposed to small employers (six to forty-nine employees). To decide on the fairness of the bill, we must first determine whether employees who work for large employers have better working conditions than employees who work for small employers. Bringing up the issue of working conditions is the red herring. FALLACIES OF PRESUMPTION 9. Begging the Question A form of  circular reasoning  in which a conclusion is derived from premises that presuppose the conclusion. Normally, the point of good reasoning is to start out at one place and end up somewhere new, namely having reached the goal of increasing the degree of reasonable belief in the conclusion. The point is to make progress, but in cases of begging the question there is no progress. Example: â€Å"Women have rights,† said the Bullfighters Association president. â€Å"But women shouldn’t fight bulls because a bullfighter is and should be a man. † The president is saying basically that women shouldn’t fight bulls because women shouldn’t fight bulls. This reasoning isn’t making any progress. Insofar as the conclusion of a deductively valid argument is â€Å"contained† in the premises from which it is deduced, this containing might seem to be a case of presupposing, and thus any deductively valid argument might seem to be begging the question. It is still an open question among logicians as to why some deductively valid arguments are considered to be begging the question and others are not. Some logicians suggest that, in informal reasoning with a deductively valid argument, if the conclusion is psychologically new insofar as the premises are concerned, then the argument isn’t an example of the fallacy. Other logicians suggest that we need to look instead to surrounding circumstances, not to the psychology of the reasoner, in order to assess the quality of the argument. For example, we need to look to the reasons that the reasoner used to accept the premises. Was the premise justified on the basis of accepting the conclusion? A third group of logicians say that, in deciding whether the fallacy is committed, we need more. We must determine whether any premise that is key to deducing the conclusion is adopted rather blindly or instead is a reasonable assumption made by someone accepting their burden of proof. The premise would here be termed reasonable if the arguer could defend it independently of accepting the conclusion that is at issue. 10. Complex Question You commit this fallacy when you frame a question so that some controversial presupposition is made by the wording of the question. Example: [Reporters question] Mr. President: Are you going to continue your policy of wasting taxpayer’s money on missile defense? The question unfairly presumes the controversial claim that the policy really is a waste of money. The fallacy of complex question is a form of begging the question. 11. False Dichotomy A reasoner who unfairly presents too few choices and then implies that a choice must be made among this short menu of choices commits the false dilemma fallacy, as does the person who accepts this faulty reasoning. Example: I want to go to Scotland from London. I overheard McTaggart say there are two roads to Scotland from London: the high road and the low road. I expect the high road would be too risky because it’s through the hills and that means dangerous curves. But it’s raining now, so both roads are probably slippery. I don’t like either choice, but I guess I should take the low road and be safer. This would be fine reasoning is you were limited to only two roads, but you’ve falsely gotten yourself into a dilemma with such reasoning. There are many other ways to get to Scotland. Don’t limit yourself to these two choices. You can take other roads, or go by boat or train or airplane. The fallacy is called the â€Å"False Dichotomy Fallacy† when the unfair menu contains only two choices. Think of the unpleasant choice between the two as being a charging bull. By demanding other choices beyond those on the unfairly limited menu, you thereby â€Å"go between the horns† of the dilemma, and are not gored. 12. Suppressed Evidence Intentionally failing to use information suspected of being relevant and significant is committing the fallacy of suppressed evidence. This fallacy usually occurs when the information counts against one’s own conclusion. Perhaps the arguer is not mentioning that experts have recently objected to one of his premises. The fallacy is a kind of fallacy of  Selective Attention. Example: Buying the Cray Mac 11 computer for our company was the right thing to do. It meets our company’s needs; it runs the programs we want it to run; it will be delivered quickly; and it costs much less than what we had budgeted. This appears to be a good argument, but you’d change your assessment of the argument if you learned the speaker has intentionally suppressed the relevant evidence that the company’s Cray Mac 11 was purchased from his brother-in-law at a 30 percent higher price than it could have been purchased elsewhere, and if you learned that a recent unbiased analysis of ten comparable computers placed the Cray Mac 11 near the bottom of the list. Appeal to Ignorance The fallacy of appeal to ignorance comes in two forms: (1) Not knowing that a certain statement is true is taken to be a proof that it is false. 2) Not knowing that a statement is false is taken to be a proof that it is true. The fallacy occurs in cases where absence of evidence is not good enough evidence of absence. The fallacy uses an unjustified attempt to shift the burden of proof. The fallacy is also called â€Å"Argument from Ignorance. † Example: Nobody has ever proved to me there’s a God, so I know there is no God. This kind of reasoning is generally fallacious. It would be proper reasoning only if the proof attempts were quite thorough, and it were the case that if God did exist, then there would be a discoverable proof of this. Another common example of the fallacy involves ignorance of a future event: People have been complaining about the danger of Xs ever since they were invented, but there’s never been any big problem with them, so there’s nothing to worry about. 14. Appeal to Unqualified Authority You appeal to authority if you back up your reasoning by saying that it is supported by what some authority says on the subject. Most reasoning of this kind is not fallacious, and much of our knowledge properly comes from listening to authorities. However, appealing to authority as a reason to believe something  is  fallacious whenever the authority appealed to is not really an authority in this particular subject, when the authority cannot be trusted to tell the truth, when authorities disagree on this subject (except for the occasional lone wolf), when the reasoner misquotes the authority, and so forth. Although spotting a fallacious appeal to authority often requires some background knowledge about the subject or the authority, in brief it can be said that it is fallacious to accept the words of a supposed authority when we should be suspicious of the authority’s words. Example: The moon is covered with dust because the president of our neighborhood association said so. This is a fallacious appeal to authority because, although the president is an authority on many neighborhood matters, you are given no reason to believe the president is an authority on the composition of the moon. It would be better to appeal to some astronomer or geologist. A TV commercial that gives you a testimonial from a famous film star who wears a Wilson watch and that suggests you, too, should wear that brand of watch is committing a fallacious appeal to authority. The film star is an authority on how to act, not on which watch is best for you. 15. Hasty Generalization A hasty generalization is a fallacy of  jumping to conclusions  in which the conclusion is a generalization. See also  Biased Statistics. Example: I’ve met two people in Nicaragua so far, and they were both nice to me. So, all people I will meet in Nicaragua will be nice to me. In any hasty generalization the key error is to overestimate the strength of an argument that is based on too small a sample for the implied confidence level or error margin. In this argument about Nicaragua, using the word â€Å"all† in the conclusion implies zero error margin. With zero error margin you’d need to sample every single person in Nicaragua, not just two people. 16. False Cause Improperly concluding that one thing is a cause of another. The Fallacy of Non Causa Pro Causa is another name for this fallacy. Its four principal kinds are the  Post Hoc Fallacy, the Fallacy of  Cum Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc,  the  Regression  Fallacy, and the Fallacy of  Reversing Causation. Example: My psychic adviser says to expect bad things when Mars is aligned with Jupiter. Tomorrow Mars will be aligned with Jupiter. So, if a dog were to bite me tomorrow, it would be because of the alignment of Mars with Jupiter. 17. Slippery Slope Suppose someone claims that a first step (in a chain of causes and effects, or a chain of reasoning) will probably lead to a second step that in turn will probably lead to another step and so on until a final step ends in trouble. If the likelihood of the trouble occurring is exaggerated, the slippery slope fallacy is committed. Example: Mom: Those look like bags under your eyes. Are you getting enough sleep? Jeff: I had a test and stayed up late studying. Mom: You didn’t take any drugs, did you? Jeff: Just caffeine in my coffee, like I always do. Mom: Jeff! You know what happens when people take drugs! Pretty soon the caffeine won’t be strong enough. Then you will take something stronger, maybe someone’s diet pill. Then, something even stronger. Eventually, you will be doing cocaine. Then you will be a crack addict! So, don’t drink that coffee. The form of a slippery slope fallacy looks like this: A leads to B. B leads to C. C leads to D. †¦ Z leads to HELL. We don’t want to go to HELL. So, don’t take that first step A. 18. Weak Analogy The problem is that the items in the analogy are too dissimilar. When reasoning by analogy, the fallacy occurs when the analogy is irrelevant or very weak or when there is a more relevant disanalogy. See also  Faulty Comparison. Example: The book  Investing for Dummies  really helped me understand my finances better. The bookChess for Dummies  was written by the same author, was published by the same press, and costs about the same amount. So, this chess book would probably help me understand my finances, too.The accent fallacy is a fallacy of ambiguity due to the different ways a word is emphasized or accented. Example: A member of Congress is asked by a reporter if she is in favor of the President’s new missile defense system, and she responds, â€Å"I’m in favor of a missile defense system that effectively defends America. † With an emphasis on the word â€Å"favor,† her response is likely to  favor  the President’s missile defense system. With an emphasis, instead, on the words â€Å"effectively defends,† her remark is likely to be  againstthe President’s missile defense system. And by using neither emphasis, she can later claim that her response was on either side of the issue. Aristotle’s version of the fallacy of accent allowed only a shift in which syllable is accented within a word. 20. Amphiboly This is an error due to taking a grammatically ambiguous phrase in two different ways during the reasoning. Example: In a cartoon, two elephants are driving their car down the road in India. They say, â€Å"We’d better not get out here,† as they pass a sign saying: Upon one interpretation of the grammar, the pronoun â€Å"YOUR† refers to the elephants in the car, but on another it refers to those humans who are driving cars in the vicinity. Unlike  equivocation, which is due to multiple meanings of a phrase, amphiboly is due to syntactic ambiguity, ambiguity caused by multiple ways of understanding the grammar of the phrase. 21. Equivocation Equivocation is the illegitimate switching of the meaning of a term during the reasoning. Example: Brad is a nobody, but since nobody is perfect, Brad must be perfect, too. The term â€Å"nobody† changes its meaning without warning in the passage. So does the term â€Å"political jokes† in this joke: I don’t approve of political jokes. I’ve seen too many of them get elected. Composition The composition fallacy occurs when someone mistakenly assumes that a characteristic of some or all the individuals in a group is also a characteristic of the group itself, the group â€Å"composed† of those members. It is the converse of the  division  fallacy. Example: Each human cell is very lightweight, so a human being composed of cells is also very lightweight. 23. Division Merely because a group as a whole has a characteristic, it often doesn’t follow that individuals in the group have that characteristic. If you suppose that it does follow, when it doesn’t, you commit the fallacy of division. It is the converse of the  composition  fallacy. Example: Joshua’s soccer team is the best in the division because it had an undefeated season and shared the division title, so Joshua, who is their goalie, must be the best goalie in the division. 24. Figure of Speech or Parallel-word Construction A fallacy characterized by ambiguities due to the fact that different words in Greek (and in Latin) may have different cases or genders even though the case endings or gender endings are the same. Since this is not widespread in other languages or since it coincides with other fallacies (e. g. quivocation, see above) writers tend to interpret it very broadly.